Demir, Hasan. “Nikāh in the Digital Age: Evaluation of Video Online Marriage Contracts in terms of Islamic Law”. Diyanet İlmî Dergi 61/4 (2025), 1457-1490. https://doi.org/10.61304/did.1716446
Nikāh in the Digital Age: Evaluation of Video Online Marriage Contracts in terms of Islamic Law *
Research Article
Received: 10 June 2025 Accepted: 17 December 2025
Hasan Demir
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi / Assistant Professor
Siirt Üniversitesi / Siirt University
İlahiyat Fakültesi / Faculty of Theology
https://ror.org/05ptwtz25
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5881-1293
Abstract
In recent years, rapid digitalization, along with transformations in communication technologies and legal systems, has profoundly altered traditional practices. The technology-driven lifestyle has shifted both social relationships and legal transactions into a new dimension. As many processes have migrated to online platforms, the marriage contract itself has been affected, giving rise to widespread discussion in Islamic law about the validity of marriages concluded without the physical presence of the parties. In Islamic law (fiqh), a marriage is valid only when its essential pillars are fulfilled: a clear offer (ījāb) and acceptance (qabūl), mutual consent, witnesses, and mahr (dower). A central question, therefore, is whether and how digital communication can satisfactorily fulfill these requirements. This study examines the jurisprudential validity and social implications of marriages contracted via online video platforms. It specifically addresses the adequacy of verbal or written declarations made remotely, the traditional requirement of physical presence, the role and validity of digital witnessing, the legal enforceability of such contracts, authentication procedures, and official registration processes. While some contemporary scholars accept online marriages under specific conditions, this study does not aim to issue a definitive ruling. Instead, it seeks to explore the issue academically from multiple perspectives, highlighting both opportunities and challenges. Employing document analysis and textual criticism, the research investigates the interaction between classical Islamic legal norms and modern technological realities, offering a balanced framework for understanding this evolving practice.
Keywords: Islamic Law, Digital Age, Online Nikāḥ, Legal Validity, Fiqhi Provisions.
* This article is published under the CC BY-NC 4.0 licence.
Dijital Çağda Nikâh: Görüntülü Çevrimiçi Evlilik Akitlerin İslâm Hukuku Açısından Değerlendirilmesi *
Araştırma Makalesi
Geliş Tarihi: 10 Haziran 2025 Kabul Tarihi: 17 Aralık 2025
Öz
Son yıllarda hızla gelişen dijitalleşme süreci, iletişim ve hukuk sistemlerindeki dönüşümler, geleneksel uygulamaları önemli ölçüde değiştirmiştir; teknolojiyle şekillenen yeni yaşam biçimi, hukukî işlemlerin yanı sıra toplumsal ilişkileri de farklı bir boyuta taşımıştır. İnternetin sunduğu imkânlar sayesinde birçok süreç çevrimiçi platformlara taşınırken, evlilik akdi de bu dönüşümden etkilenmiş ve çiftlerin fiziksel olarak bir araya gelmeden nikâh akdi yapması İslâm hukuku bağlamında tartışma konusu olmuştur. İslâm hukukunda nikâhın geçerliliği, icap ve kabul, tarafların rızası, şahitlik ve mehir gibi temel unsurlara dayanmakta olup, dijital iletişimin bu unsurlara nasıl uyarlanabileceği ele alınmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, görüntülü çevrimiçi nikâhın fıkhî geçerliliği ve toplumsal etkileri analiz edilecek, nikâh akdinin sözlü veya yazılı beyanla gerçekleştirilmesinin yeterliliği, fiziksel mevcudiyet şartı ve dijital şahitliğin yeri tartışılacaktır. Ayrıca çevrimiçi nikâhın hukukî bağlayıcılığı, kimlik doğrulama süreçleri ve resmî kayıt yöntemleri değerlendirilecektir. İslâm hukukunda çevrimiçi nikâh belirli şartlarla kabul edilse de bu çalışma kesin bir yargıya varmaktan ziyade konuyu farklı açılardan akademik olarak ele almayı amaçlamaktadır. Doküman ve metin analizi yöntemleri kullanılarak İslâm hukukunun klasik normları ile çağdaş sistemler arasındaki etkileşim incelenecektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: İslâm Hukuku, Dijital Çağ, Çevrimiçi Nikâh, Hukukî Geçerlilik, Fıkhî Hükümler.
* Bu makale CC BY-NC 4.0 lisansı altında yayımlanmaktadır.
Summary
The technological revolution of the modern era has triggered one of the greatest transformations in human history, and the dizzying advances in digitalization and communication technologies have profoundly affected all layers of society. This transformation has not only changed the daily lives of individuals but also reshaped social norms, legal processes, and the building blocks of human relations. With the spread of the Internet and the rapid development of digital communication tools, globalization has gained a new dimension, physical borders have lost their meaning, and individuals in different parts of the world have become closer to each other than ever before. While education, trade, public services, and legal transactions have moved to the virtual environment, this technological transformation has also affected the institution of marriage, which is one of the most basic building blocks of human relations, forcing us to rethink the traditional concept of the marriage contract. Marriage has been one of the basic building blocks of societies throughout history as both a legal and social bond. However, factors such as geographical distances, wars, epidemics, and travel restrictions have been among the factors that make it difficult for couples to come together and perform the marriage contract face-to-face. Online marriage stands out as an important opportunity offered by the modern world to overcome these obstacles and gives individuals the opportunity to complete their marriages within the official and religious framework without spatial restrictions. Especially as global crises make it more difficult to carry out marriage procedures with traditional methods, online marriage is seen as a practical solution for many couples. The pandemic has been one of the most striking examples of this: social interactions were limited, crowded wedding ceremonies were banned, and official marriage procedures were temporarily suspended in many countries. In this process, couples adopted online marriage as an alternative by using digital tools to perform the marriage contract. Similarly, for war victims, migrants, and individuals who are outside the legal systems, online marriage is considered a method that can protect their marriage rights and establish a formal marriage bond. In Islamic law, marriage is validated with the mutual consent of the parties, declarations of consent and acceptance (offer and acceptance), the presence of witnesses, and the unity of the assembly. In traditional practices, the presence of the parties in the same place has been accepted as a prerequisite for the fulfillment of these conditions in a sound manner. However, with the development of digital technologies, video and audio communication tools have made it possible for the parties to complete the offer and acceptance processes without coming together simultaneously. In particular, online video marriage offers a modern adaptation of the classical principle of unity of the assembly by enabling the parties to see each other in real-time. One of the most important issues in terms of the reliability of online marriage is the witness mechanism. In traditional marriages, witnesses must hear the parties' statements simultaneously, and identity verification processes must be carried out properly. How to secure this process in the digital environment is an important question. Formal authentication procedures may allow witnesses to verify the parties. However, risks such as identity forgery and voice impersonation in audio-only marriage contracts make the validity of this method questionable. Video marriage can be considered more reliable as it allows witnesses to see the parties live and verify their identities. The jurisprudential validity of online marriage has led to different interpretations among Islamic jurists, especially in the context of the marriage contract made over video communication. While some scholars argue that online video marriage is permissible, others approach it with caution, arguing that this method does not fully fulfill the conditions. Those who consider online video marriage permissible generally argue that the principle of unity of witnesses and the assembly can be achieved through video communication. According to this view, if the parties can see each other clearly through a live connection, and the witnesses can hear and witness the statements of offer and acceptance in real-time, the principle of unity of the assembly is not violated. On the other hand, those who do not consider video marriage permissible argue that the principle of unity of the assembly and physical witnessing cannot be fully achieved. According to this view, the marriage assembly requires physical presence in the same physical environment, and a virtual assembly may not fully fulfill the traditional jurisprudential principles. Both views cite various jurisprudential arguments. The permissibilists rely on narrations that show that the marriage can be valid if the principle of witnesses and ijāb and qabūl are met, and fatwas that recognize the legal validity of modern methods of communication. Those who do not consider it permissible, on the other hand, rely on the emphasis in classical fiqh texts that the marriage assembly requires a concrete environment and argue that the possibility of misleading the witnesses may damage the reliability of the contract. With the completion of the marriage contract, the legal and moral responsibilities of the parties begin. In Islamic law, the obligation of maintenance (or nafaqah) includes the basic financial responsibilities that the husband must fulfill towards his wife. It is among the most basic duties of the husband to fulfill his wife's housing, food, clothing, and basic needs. Legal systems need new regulations to ensure the validity of online video marriages. Documentation of the marriage through a notary or official authorities is of great importance in terms of legal security. For couples living in different countries, the recognition of the marriage by both religious and official authorities facilitates the protection of rights such as alimony. Rather than making a definitive judgment, this study aims to analyze in detail the jurisprudential dimensions of the online marriage contract, the place of video marriage in Islamic law, the reliability problems, and the risks it carries in terms of protecting the rights of the parties. In the study, document analysis and textual analysis methods will be used predominantly, and the interaction between the classical norms of Islamic law and contemporary legal regulations will be evaluated within the normative framework.
Geniş Özet
Modern çağın teknolojik devrimi, insanlık tarihindeki en büyük dönüşümlerden birini tetiklemiş, dijitalleşme ve iletişim teknolojilerindeki baş döndürücü ilerlemeler toplumun tüm katmanlarını derinden etkilemiştir. Bu dönüşüm, yalnızca bireylerin günlük yaşamlarını değiştirmekle kalmamış, aynı zamanda toplumsal normları, hukukî süreçleri ve insan ilişkilerinin yapı taşlarını yeniden şekillendirmiştir. İnternetin yaygınlaşması ve dijital iletişim araçlarının hızla gelişmesiyle birlikte, küreselleşme yeni bir boyut kazanmış, fiziksel sınırlar anlamını yitirerek dünyanın farklı noktalarındaki bireyler birbirine her zamankinden daha yakın hale gelmiştir. Eğitim, ticaret, kamu hizmetleri ve hukukî işlemler sanal ortama taşınırken, bu teknolojik dönüşüm insan ilişkilerinin en temel yapı taşlarından biri olan evlilik kurumunu da etkilemiş, geleneksel nikâh akdi kavramını yeniden düşünmeye zorlamıştır. Evlilik hem hukukî hem de sosyal bir bağ olarak tarih boyunca toplumların temel yapı taşlarından biri olmuştur. Ancak, coğrafi mesafeler, savaşlar, salgın hastalıklar ve seyahat kısıtlamaları gibi faktörler, çiftlerin bir araya gelmesini ve evlilik akdini yüz yüze gerçekleştirmesini zorlaştıran unsurlar arasında yer almıştır. Çevrimiçi nikâh, bu engelleri aşmada modern dünyanın sunduğu önemli bir imkân olarak öne çıkmakta ve bireylere mekânsal kısıtlamalara takılmadan evliliklerini resmî ve dini çerçevede tamamlayabilme fırsatı vermektedir. Özellikle küresel krizler, evlilik işlemlerinin geleneksel yöntemlerle yürütülmesini daha zor hale getirdiğinden, çevrimiçi nikâh birçok çift için pratik bir çözüm olarak görülmektedir. Pandemi süreci, bunun en çarpıcı örneklerinden biri olmuş, salgın nedeniyle toplumsal etkileşimler sınırlandırılmış, kalabalık nikâh törenleri yasaklanmış ve birçok ülkede resmî evlilik işlemleri geçici olarak durdurulmuştur. Bu süreçte çiftler, evlilik akdini gerçekleştirmek için dijital araçları kullanarak çevrimiçi nikâhı bir alternatif olarak benimsemişlerdir. Benzer şekilde, savaş mağdurları, göçmenler ve hukukî sistemlerin dışında kalan bireyler için çevrimiçi nikâh, evlilik haklarını koruyabilecek ve resmî bir evlilik bağı kurabilecekleri bir yöntem olarak değerlendirilmektedir. İslâm hukukunda nikâh, tarafların karşılıklı rızası, icap ve kabul beyanları, şahitlerin mevcudiyeti ve meclis birliği gibi temel şartlarla geçerlilik kazanır. Geleneksel uygulamalarda tarafların aynı mekânda bulunması, bu şartların sağlıklı bir şekilde yerine getirilmesi için bir ön koşul olarak kabul edilmiştir. Ancak dijital teknolojilerin gelişmesiyle birlikte, görüntülü ve sesli iletişim araçları, tarafların eş zamanlı olarak bir araya gelmeden icap ve kabul süreçlerini tamamlamasını mümkün kılmıştır. Özellikle görüntülü çevrimiçi nikâh, tarafların birbirlerini gerçek zamanlı görmesini sağlayarak, klasik meclis birliği ilkesine modern bir uyarlama sunmaktadır. Çevrimiçi nikâhın güvenilirliği açısından en önemli hususlardan biri şahitlik mekanizmasıdır. Geleneksel nikâhta şahitlerin, tarafların beyanlarını eş zamanlı olarak işitmesi ve kimlik doğrulama süreçlerinin sağlıklı yürütülmesi gerekir. Dijital ortamda bu sürecin nasıl güvenli hâle getirileceği önemli bir soru olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Resmî kimlik doğrulama prosedürleri, şahitlerin tarafları doğrulamasına olanak sağlayabilir. Ancak sesli nikâh akitlerinde kimlik sahteciliği ve ses taklidi gibi riskler, bu yöntemin geçerliliğini tartışmalı hâle getirmektedir. Görüntülü nikâh, şahitlerin tarafları canlı olarak görmesine ve kimliklerini doğrulamasına olanak sunduğu için daha güvenilir kabul edilebilir. Çevrimiçi nikâhın fıkhî geçerliliği, özellikle görüntülü iletişim üzerinden yapılan nikâh akdi bağlamında İslâm hukukçuları arasında farklı yorumlara yol açmıştır. Bazı âlimler, görüntülü çevrimiçi nikâhın caiz olduğunu savunurken, bazıları bu yöntemin şartları tam anlamıyla yerine getirmediğini öne sürerek ihtiyatla yaklaşmaktadır. Görüntülü çevrimiçi nikâhı caiz görenler, genellikle şahitlik ve meclis birliği prensibinin görüntülü iletişim yoluyla sağlanabileceğini savunmaktadır. Bu görüşe göre, eğer taraflar canlı bağlantı ile birbirlerini net bir şekilde görebiliyor, şahitler icap ve kabul beyanlarını gerçek zamanlı olarak duyuyor ve tanıklık edebiliyorsa, meclis birliği prensibinin bozulmadığı kabul edilir. Diğer taraftan, görüntülü nikâhı caiz görmeyenler, meclis birliği prensibinin ve fiziksel şahitliğin tam olarak sağlanamayacağını öne sürmektedir. Bu görüşe göre, nikâh meclisi aynı fiziksel ortamda bulunmayı gerektirir ve sanal bir meclis, geleneksel fıkhî prensipleri tam olarak karşılamayabilir. Her iki görüş de çeşitli fıkhî deliller öne sürmektedir. Caiz görenler, şahitlik ve icap-kabul prensibinin sağlanması durumunda nikâhın geçerli olabileceğini gösteren rivayetleri ve çağdaş iletişim yöntemlerinin hukukî geçerliliğini tanıyan fetvaları dayanak olarak kullanmaktadır. Caiz görmeyenler ise, klasik fıkhî metinlerde nikâh meclisinin somut bir ortam gerektirdiğine dair vurgulara dayanmakta ve şahitlerin yanıltılma ihtimalinin, akdin güvenilirliğini zedeleyebileceğini öne sürmektedir. Nikâh akdinin tamamlanmasıyla birlikte, tarafların hukukî ve ahlaki sorumlulukları başlamaktadır. İslâm hukukunda nafaka yükümlülüğü, kocanın eşine karşı yerine getirmesi gereken temel maddi sorumlulukları içermektedir. Eşinin barınma, gıda, giyim ve temel ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak kocanın en temel görevleri arasındadır. Görüntülü çevrimiçi nikâhın geçerliliğinin sağlanması için hukukî sistemlerin yeni düzenlemelere ihtiyacı bulunmaktadır. Nikâhın noter veya resmî makamlar aracılığıyla belgelenmesi, hukukî güvence açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Farklı ülkelerde yaşayan çiftler için, nikâhın hem dini hem de resmî makamlarca tanınması, nafaka gibi hakların korunmasını kolaylaştırır. Bu çalışma, kesin bir yargıya varmaktan ziyade, çevrimiçi nikâh akdinin fıkhî boyutlarını, görüntülü nikâhın İslâm hukukundaki yeri, güvenilirlik sorunları ve tarafların haklarının korunması açısından taşıdığı riskleri detaylı bir şekilde analiz etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Çalışmada doküman analizi ve metin analizi yöntemleri ağırlıklı olarak kullanılacak olup, İslâm hukukunun klasik normları ile çağdaş hukukî düzenlemeler arasındaki etkileşim normatif çerçevede değerlendirilecektir.
Introductıon
Marriage is recognised in Islamic law not only as a private bond between individuals, but also as a legal and moral contract that protects social order. The Qur’an and hadiths emphasise that marriage is not only a personal choice, but a system in accordance with the creation of man. Marriage, one of the fundamental principles of Islam, not only ensures the spiritual and social stability of the individual, but also plays an important role in terms of the moral balance of society and the protection of the generation. The fact that marriage is presented in the Qur’an as one of Allah’s favours on man reveals the fact that marriage is a natural order. As a matter of fact, ‘One of the proofs of His existence is that He created your spouses so that you may find peace with them, and put love and mercy between you. Surely there are lessons in this for a thinking people.’[1] The verse states that marriage exists to provide love, compassion and peace between spouses. According to Islam, the purpose of marriage is not only to bring two individuals together, but also to ensure the healthy continuation of the generation by protecting chastity, trust and order in society. For this reason, the marriage contract is regulated within the framework of certain rules in Islamic law. This legal system ensures that the marriage bond is built on solid foundations, while at the same time determining the rights and responsibilities between men and women in a balanced manner. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) encouraged marriage and emphasised the critical importance of marriage for the spiritual development of the individual. In this context, the hadith ‘Marriage is my sunnah; whoever turns away from my sunnah is not from me.’[2] shows that marriage is not only a worldly contract, but also a religious and moral obligation. Likewise, marriage helps to protect the individual from haram, consolidates social order and guarantees the safety of women and children. The Prophet (PBUH) encouraged young people to marry and expressed the protective role of marriage on individual and social chastity as follows: ‘O young people! Let those of you who can afford to marry get married. Because marriage protects the eyes from haram and preserves chastity.’[3] In this context, marriage is not only a process that depends on the preferences of individuals, but also a legal and moral system that shapes and protects society. In order to ensure the functionality of this system, certain conditions have been set forth in Islamic law. In order for the marriage contract to be considered valid, elements such as the clear declaration of the offer and acceptance, the presence of two Muslim witnesses at the time of the marriage, the recognition of the woman’s right to mahr, the permission of the guardian (walī) according to some sects, and the public announcement of the marriage (announcement) must be fulfilled.
This article aims to examine the validity of online video marriages in terms of Islamic law and to evaluate the different jurisprudence of jurists on this issue, its compatibility with modern legal systems and its social consequences. Firstly, the conditions necessary for a marriage to be valid in Islamic law will be explained, and then the views on the compatibility of online video marriages with these criteria will be discussed. Finally, in line with the views of Islamic jurists, findings will be presented on how marriage in the digital age should be handled in terms of fiqh legitimacy. How digital technologies affect marriage processes and how they can be harmonised with traditional law has become an important issue in terms of adapting Islamic law to modern living conditions, and jurists and jurists need to put forward extended jurisprudence on this issue. This study will evaluate the legal boundaries of marriage in the digital age, aiming to strike a balance between classical jurisprudence and modern legal approaches
1. Basic Conditions of Nikāḥ in Islamic Law
According to Islamic law, the marriage contract is not a simple contract formed by the union of two individuals, but an institution with social and legal aspects. In this context, in order for a marriage contract to be considered valid and valid, certain constitutive elements and legal conditions must be fulfilled. In terms of the validity of a legal transaction, the constitutive elements are divided into four basic categories: the conditions of authenticity, the conditions of nafaz (enforceability) and the conditions of necessity (bindingness). The constitutive elements are the basic elements that must exist in order for the marriage contract to be realised in practice. In order to gain legal validity, the contract must comply with the conditions of validity. However, fulfilment of these conditions alone is not sufficient; in order for the marriage contract to have legal consequences, the conditions of nafaz and necessity must also be fulfilled. These conceptual distinctions determine the validity of marriage as a contract, its legal consequences and its binding nature on the parties. In Islamic law, legal transactions are evaluated within the framework of the concepts of obligations and conditions. Whereas a rukun is considered to be the basic element that is directly included in the structure of a contract and makes its existence obligatory for the formation of a contract, a condition is defined as the element that must be provided for the validity of the relevant contract but is not directly included in the internal structure of the contract. While prostration, which is one of the rituals of the prayer, is a direct part of the prayer, ablution is a necessary condition for the validity of the prayer and does not directly constitute a part of the structure of the prayer. From this point of view, the marriage contract is also subject to certain rituals and conditions, the lack of which may lead to the invalidity of the marriage.[4]
There are various differences of opinion among the sects regarding the ratios of the marriage contract. In this context, each sect has determined the basic elements of the marriage contract based on its own fiqh methodology and procedure. There are certain differences of opinion among the sects regarding the rukuns of the marriage contract. According to the Hanafi madhhab, the basic element of the marriage contract is the declaration of will and consists of ʾijāb and acceptance. Hanafi jurists consider it sufficient for the marriage to be legally valid for the parties to express a clear will to marry.[5] In this sect, issues such as testimony, mahr and parental consent are considered as conditions of validity or necessity and are not included in the essence of the contract. The Mālikī sect, on the other hand, stipulates the existence of five elements for the validity of the marriage: husband, wife, guardian, mehir and sīgah (ijāb and acceptance).[6]
The Shafi’i madhhab also defines the elements of marriage based on five basic elements: husband, wife, guardian, two just witnesses and sīgah; in this approach, the permission of the guardian and the presence of witnesses are considered obligatory for the validity of the marriage, and the contract is considered invalid in case of deficiency.[7] In the Hanbalî madhhab, there are three basic conditions of marriage: The parties to be married must be free from any obstacle to marriage, the proposal must be made by the guardian or authorised person with a clear statement, and the acceptance must be expressed verbally.[8]
Although there are some differences in the fiqh sects such as Hanafi, Shafi’i, Maliki and Hanbali, in general terms, the conditions stipulated by the sects[9] regarding this issue can be presented as follows:
1.1. Existence of the Parties to Marry
In order for a valid marriage to exist, there must be a specific man and woman to be married. Since marriage is defined as a legal bond between a man and a woman in Islamic law, the determination of the sex of the parties is considered a fundamental condition for the validity of the contract. In this context, the marriage of a person of indeterminate gender (khunsâ-i mushkil) is not considered religiously valid.[10] The Hanafi madhhab has determined the basic elements of the marriage contract as ʾijāb and acceptance, and has not considered the parties as a separate element of the contract.[11] This approach is based on the view that the nature of offer and acceptance already includes the parties to the contract. This is because legal declarations of will become possible only with the existence of the parties to the contract.[12] Accordingly, Hanafi jurists may have accepted that there is no need to mention the parties separately. On the other hand, other sects explicitly listed the parties to the contract among the constituent elements and emphasised the role of the parties in terms of the validity of the marriage contract.[13] Especially in the context of the marriage contract, the parties to the contract are defined as the persons to be married and their guardians under certain conditions.
Islamic law accepts proxy as a legally valid method in the marriage contract, and persons who have the capacity to make a marriage contract can exercise this authority through a proxy.[14] It allows them to use their power of attorney through a representative. In this context, both men and women can realise the marriage contract through a representative to whom they give power of attorney. The nature of the power of attorney allows the parties to complete the marriage process through the proxy by preserving the legal validity of their declarations of will[15] According to some jurists, if two parties give power of attorney to the same person, the attorney in question can represent both parties, and the marriage contract is legally valid as if it was made directly by the parties’ own declaration of will.[16] This enables the attorney to complete the contract within the framework of the authorisation, making it possible to establish the marriage bond without the direct participation of the parties in the contractual process.
1.2. Declaration of Will
The legal validity of the marriage contract is ensured by the parties’ clear, definite and mutual declaration of their will to marry. This declaration of will, which is accepted as a legally binding transaction, is realised in two stages as offer and acceptance, and the offer refers to the legal proposal made by the party wishing to establish the marriage contract, and the acceptance refers to the positive approval of this proposal by the other party. The declarations of offer and acceptance must be announced in a way that can be heard or understood by the parties, must follow each other consecutively and must show that the contract has been conclusively established. In addition, it is essential that the declarations of will are not postponed to a later date or tied to a delaying condition in order to realise the marriage contract in a manner that will immediately come into effect. Verbal expressions, which are widely accepted in the society within the framework of customary and customary law, are also considered within the scope of clear and definite declaration of will and enable the parties to clearly express their intentions. These issues are accepted as the basic principles that guarantee the legal binding nature of the marriage contract and provide an important framework for the healthy establishment of the marriage union. On the other hand, Islamic jurists have attached importance to certain formal requirements in legal transactions and contracts, and have envisaged that these requirements make it possible for the contract to be finalised, to gain publicity and to provide assurance of proof. In this context, it has been emphasised that contracts should be made with expressions that indicate certainty, and especially the Hanafis aimed to guarantee the certainty of the contract from a legal point of view by arguing that at least one of the offer and acceptance should be in the past tense.[17]
1.3. al-Mahr
In Islamic law, one of the financial elements of the marriage contract, the mahr, refers to money, property or an interest of economic value given or promised to be given by the man to the woman to be married. The mahr belongs to the full ownership of the woman and no third party has the right of partnership or disposition over it. In classical fiqh sources, it is stated that any kind of property or economic gain that has a material value can be accepted as mahr, and in this context, it has a wide application area. As a matter of fact, according to the Mālikī madhhab, ‘Nikāḥ can only be valid with a determined rite, whether this determination is explicit or implicit.’ It is not possible for the marriage contract to be without a mahr, and the determination of the mahr is considered essential for the validity of the contract.[18]
While there is no upper limit for the maximum amount of mahr, there are different jurisprudence among the sects regarding the minimum amount. The amount of mahr may vary according to the economic conditions of the period, social traditions and the circumstances of the parties. Hanafi sources state that the minimum amount of mahr is ten dirhams (approximately the value of two sacrificial sheep).[19]
There are different opinions among the sects regarding the minimum amount of the mahr in the marriage contract. The Mālikī sect accepts that the mahr should be at least three dirhams of silver or a quarter dinar. Ibn Shubruma (d. 144/761) set this limit at five dirhams, whereas Ibrahim al-Naha’i (d. 96/714) considered the minimum amount of mahr to be forty dirhams, and in some narrations he expressed it as twenty dirhams. Said b. Jubayr (d. 94/713 [?]) stated that the minimum amount of mahr should be fifty dirhams, and the jurists who adopted this view determined the amount of mahr according to the lower limit of the theft limit. On the other hand, the Shafi’i and Hanbalī sects do not set any lower limit on the amount of mahr and argue that any financial value can be accepted as mahr according to the agreement between the parties. The jurists of these sects have stated that anything that is accepted as a price in the market will be considered valid as mahr. In addition, some Zāhirī jurists have argued that anything that can be acquired through donation or inheritance can be determined as mahr, even if it has no commercial value, and in this context, even a grain of wheat or barley can be mahr. These sectarian differences reveal the diversity of jurisprudence on the financial aspect of marriage in Islamic law and show that there are different legal perspectives on the determination of mahr.[20]
In terms of the payment method, it can be paid in full in advance or a part of it can be paid in advance and the remaining part can be postponed to a later date. In this respect, the mehr paid in advance is called ‘mehr muajcel’ and the mehr agreed to be paid after the marriage or within a certain period of time is called ‘mehr müajcel’.[21] In the classical literature, mehir is also expressed with different terms, and words such as sadiq, saduka, mihr, fariza, ecr, hibat, ukr, ald, tawî and nikâh are used to meet this concept.[22]
Even if it is not explicitly mentioned or determined at the time of the marriage contract, the woman is entitled to the bride price when the marriage is realised. This right, which is shaped in line with the principle of protecting the financial independence of women in Islamic law, ensures that the woman has economic security in the context of the marriage relationship. Accordingly, it is not legally possible for the husband to make any disposition on the mahr without the consent of his wife. The importance of mahr is emphasised in the Holy Qur’an and hadiths, and in different legal frameworks, the conditions under which the amount of mahr will accrue are discussed in detail. According to the Mālikī sect, the marriage contract is not considered valid without mahr. ‘The complete reduction of the mahr requires the annulment of the contract; however, if the marriage has taken place, the woman must be paid the mahr equivalent.’ It is accepted that for the legal validity of the marriage contract, it is necessary to determine the mahr, and this determination can be made explicitly or judicially.
1.4. Witnesses
The marriage contract is legally and socially binding and one of its main determinants is the principle of openness and publicity. This principle is recognised as one of the most important criteria that distinguishes marriage from adultery. This is because marriage is performed as a legal contract that is known and valid in the eyes of the society, whereas adultery is considered a secret and veiled act due to its nature. Witnesses are one of the most important elements that ensure the openness of the marriage contract. In this context, according to Islamic law, the marriage contract must be performed in the presence of two male witnesses or one male and two female witnesses who are of sound mind and mental health, have reached the age of puberty and are Muslims. The presence of witnesses is regarded as a compulsory condition to ensure the validity and publicity of the marriage contract.[23]
In Islamic law, the requirement of witnesses for the validity of the marriage contract has been an important subject of debate among jurists and has been interpreted in different ways by different sects. Abū Hanīfa, Shāfi’ī and Mālikī sects are unanimous on the necessity of having a witness for the validity of the marriage contract. However, there are differences of opinion among the sects as to whether witnessing is a basic condition for the validity of the contract or a complementary element. The Mālikī madhhab argued that the marriage can only be valid if it is announced openly and that the contract should be annulled if the witnesses are under the obligation of secrecy. Abū Hanīfa and Shāfi’ī, on the other hand, argued that the contract is legally valid with the presence of witnesses and stated that secrecy does not harm the validity of the marriage. On the other hand, some jurists did not consider witnesses as a necessary element for the validity of the marriage. Abū Ṣadr and some other jurists argued that the presence of witnesses is not necessary for the validity of the marriage, neither in terms of its validity nor its completion, and that the marriage contract can only be valid with the declaration of will and acceptance of the parties. According to this view, witnesses are not a prerequisite for the validity of the marriage contract, but a means for the social announcement of the contract. One of the evidences supporting this approach is the narration that Hazrat Hasan b. ‘Ali (r.a.) got married without witnesses and then announced his marriage.[24] However, it is noteworthy that the Prophet (PBUH) said, ‘Announce this marriage and play the tambourine on it.’[25] The hadith and the harsh stance of Prophet ‘Umar (r.a.) to prohibit secret marriage have led the sects to interpret the requirement of witnesses in the marriage contract as a legal requirement.[26]
Today, not only the presence of witnesses is considered sufficient to ensure the openness of the marriage contract, but also methods such as official announcements, public announcements and marriage registration systems are used. Marriages registered by official authorities become publicly known in society and are legally protected. Therefore, the principle of openness of the marriage contract is accepted as an important element in both traditional fiqh and modern legal systems, and it can be said that it aims to consolidate the place of the marriage union within the social order.
1.5. Wali’s Consent
There is a fundamental difference of opinion between Abū Hanīfa and the other three madhhabs regarding the capacity of adult (bālika) women to marry. The Shafi’i, Mālikī and Hanbalī sects accept that adult girls can only marry through their guardians and argue that the consent of the guardian is mandatory for the validity of the marriage contract. These sects consider the guardian’s control over the marriage as a necessary condition for the protection of women and the realization of marriage within the social order. Abū Hanīfa, on the other hand, accepted that adult women can enter into a marriage contract on their own without consulting their guardians and did not consider the consent of the guardian to be legally obligatory in this regard. Hanafi jurists argued that the basic elements of the marriage contract, ʾijāb and acceptance, can be realized through the declarations of will of the parties, and that an adult woman has the capacity to make the decision to marry on her own, and they did not consider the intervention of the guardian necessary in this regard.[27]
Although Abū Hanīfa adopted an approach that emphasized the individual’s personality and the ability to make legal dispositions, changes in the structure of society and the need to preserve social order necessitated some additional regulations. In particular, the fact that marriage decisions are taken based on individual emotional orientations may cause inconveniences for individuals and their families in some cases, and therefore certain legal measures are required. In this context, the Ottoman Empire introduced a legal regulation on the capacity to marry by stipulating certain age requirements with the Law on Family Decree of 1917. According to the decree, men had to be 18 years old and women had to be 17 years old in order to marry. However, while men who have the capacity to marry can freely marry, a different procedure is envisaged for women. Accordingly, the judge notifies the guardian of the marriage request and assesses whether the guardian has any objection. If the guardian does not object or if the objection is deemed legally invalid, the marriage is finalized by a judge’s decision.[28] This regulation offers an approach to balancing the protection of individual will and social control in terms of determining the age of marriage and evaluating the intervention of the guardian within the legal framework. The implementation of similar legal regulations in today’s conditions is important for the healthy establishment of the marriage contract.
1.6. No Obstacle to Marriage
In Islamic law, the validity of the marriage contract depends on the absence of any obstacle to marriage between the parties. Obstacles[29] to marriage are regulations that make the marriage relationship legally impossible for individuals and are divided into two main categories as permanent and temporary obstacles. Permanent impediments to marriage consist of provisions that permanently prohibit individuals from marrying for reasons such as blood, marriage or matrimonial kinship. Relative kinship prohibits marriages with one’s descendants (mothers, grandmothers), descendants (daughters, granddaughters), siblings, nieces, nephews and aunts and uncles. By virtue of kinship through marriage, the marriage contract with relatives such as stepmothers, stepdaughters, daughters-in-law, daughters-in-law and mothers-in-law is legally invalid. Milk kinship, on the other hand, prohibits marriage with wet mothers and wet sisters due to the bond created by the breastfeeding of a child. Among the permanent obstacles, there are also obstacles such as the period of iddah, difference in religion and the status of freedom, and according to some sects, the marriage of a Muslim woman to a non-Muslim man, differences in the status of slaves and free persons, and the fact that the woman has not completed the period of iddah are among the factors that invalidate the marriage contract.[30]
Temporary impediments to marriage refer to the inability to marry as long as certain conditions persist, but marriage becomes possible once these impediments are removed. Due to kinship by blood, a man cannot marry two sisters at the same time, or a woman to her aunt or auntie, but if one of them divorces or dies, the other can marry. Religious difference strictly prohibits a Muslim woman from marrying a non-Muslim man, while a Muslim man is allowed to marry a Ahl al-Bayt woman. Polygamy allows a man to be married to a maximum of four women, and a man may marry a fifth woman only if one of his current wives is divorced or deceased. Iddah refers to the period of waiting that a woman must undergo after a divorce or the death of her husband; a new marriage cannot take place until this period is completed. Finally, a three talaq divorce is one that completely severs the marriage bond between the spouses, in which case the woman can only remarry her former husband after she has married and divorced someone else.[31]
2. Fiqhi Analysis of Online Video Nikāḥ
2.1. Technological Relevance
The development of the digital age, together with advances in communication technologies, has made it possible to transfer many traditional practices to the virtual environment. This transformation has made it common for legal and social transactions to be carried out through digital platforms, and marriage contracts (nikāḥ) have also been affected by this change. Video conferencing platforms such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Skype stand out as tools that facilitate the gathering of individuals on a global scale, and have contributed to the widespread use of online marriage practices in situations where physical meetings are difficult due to factors such as pandemic, geographical distances, and migration. In particular, the COVID-19 pandemic has made it difficult to perform traditional wedding ceremonies and has led to the introduction of legal regulations for online wedding practices in many countries. The proliferation of remote working, digital meetings and virtual events has made it possible for marriage contracts to be performed in a similar digital environment. Online marriage refers to the performance of the marriage contract through video conferencing tools in cases where the parties are located in different geographies, travel restrictions or health reasons.[32]
Digital transformation has enabled traditional legal transactions to move to the virtual environment in line with technological developments. Authentication, security and personal data protection are at the center of this process, and many transactions are now made more secure through biometric security systems. Biometric verification technologies identify individuals based on their physical and behavioral characteristics and are used as one of the basic elements of the security mechanism in different fields. Biochemical data such as body temperature, heart rhythm, facial structure, DNA profile, fingerprints, iris and retinal scans play an active role in authentication processes due to their personalized nature. Behavioral biometrics methods such as speech tone, walking style, keystrokes and handwriting contribute to the prevention of forgery by evaluating certain movement patterns of the individual.[33]
Biometric security systems are technologies that make authentication processes more secure by analyzing the physical and behavioral characteristics of individuals. However, these systems have some disadvantages. First of all, biometric verification methods require additional hardware costs, and especially high-sensitivity technologies such as retina and iris scanning systems can be costly in terms of installation and maintenance. Although fingerprint and facial recognition systems offer more economical solutions, they require infrastructure investments for widespread use. The unalterability of biometric data is one of the biggest security aspects of the system. While traditional encryption methods can be changed in the event of a security breach, biometric data cannot be reconstructed or altered in the event of theft. For example, if a person’s fingerprint or iris information is compromised, there is a risk that this data can be used to create a false identity or for unauthorized access.[34]
Biometric security systems are increasingly applied in online transactions due to their capacity to prevent identity fraud. In online marriage contracts, accurate verification of the identity of the parties is important to preserve the legal validity of the contract. While traditional marriages rely on the physical presence of the parties, digital marriages require uninterrupted authentication processes to ensure the continuity of the assembly. Biometric authentication mechanisms can prevent fake marriage attempts and strengthen the witnessing mechanism by accurately identifying the parties in online marriage contracts. In this context, the integration of biometric systems to enhance the security of digital marriage processes is considered a critical development from both a legal and technological perspective. However, the risks of biometric verification methods should also be taken into account in online marriage contracts. While in traditional marriage ceremonies the parties are physically present and identity verification is carried out, the possibility of identity forgery, misleading statements and technical manipulation should be taken into account in digital contracts.
2.2. Provision of Conditions
Today, the development of digital technologies has enabled many traditional legal and social transactions to be performed online, and in this context, the issue of online marriage has become an important topic of discussion in terms of Islamic law. The validity of the nikāḥ contract is based on basic elements such as the parties’ explicit declaration of will, the determination of the mahr, the presence of witnesses, and the establishment of the contract in a way that ensures legal validity. In terms of the juridical validity of the marriage contract, the principle of unity of the assembly is taken into consideration. This principle requires that the parties to the marriage contract be present in the same environment and that the process of ijāq and acceptance be completed in the same session without interruption. The jurists have considered the principle of unity of the assembly as a condition that provides legal security, arguing that the interruption between the offer and acceptance may undermine the binding nature of the marriage contract. The constitutive conditions necessary for the validity of the marriage contract are analyzed in two main categories: Conditions related to the parties and conditions related to the place where the contract takes place. The principle of unity of the assembly, which is one of the spatial conditions, requires the parties to be in the same environment and the process of offer and acceptance to be completed without interruption. If one of the parties leaves the assembly after making the offer, or if the assembly is engaged in other business that disrupts its continuity, the legal validity of the contract becomes questionable. In this context, the jurists have developed the concept of the unity of the assembly. Accordingly, even if the parties are not physically in the same place, the validity of the contract can be ensured when the offer and acceptance take place uninterruptedly within the same legal context. Online video marriages performed through modern communication tools require a legal evaluation within the framework of this principle, and even if the parties are physically separated, it may be possible to complete the contract by accepting that they are in the same legal session.[35]
According to the Hanafi madhhab, the validity of a marriage performed through written documents or by mail [36], The general approach of the jurists is that the marriage contract performed through modern communication tools such as the internet and telephones, which enable simultaneous interaction, can also be considered valid in principle. The general approach of the jurists, on the other hand, states that if conditions such as the offer and acceptance taking place in the same assembly and the witnesses hearing the parties’ statements simultaneously are met, the validity of the online marriage contract can be supported. However, some jurisprudential opinions caution against online video marriages and argue that methods based on physical presence are more reliable due to the vulnerabilities in authentication processes, the possibility of forgery, and privacy concerns. In order to mitigate such risks, it is emphasized that security measures should be enhanced, witnessing mechanisms strengthened and authentication systems should be more robust.[37] In this context, before making a final assessment of the issue, it is necessary to consider the different fiqh approaches comparatively and evaluate them from an analytical perspective.
2.3. Approaches to the Issue
Although traditional marriage practices are based on the physical coexistence of the parties, the jurisprudence has developed the concept of the unity of the juridical assembly over time.[38] According to this concept, even if the parties are not in the same place, the validity of the contract can be ensured when the offer and acceptance take place in an uninterrupted legal context. In the context of online video marriages, the principle of unity of juridical assembly suggests that the contract may be valid if the parties are connected simultaneously in a digital environment and the witnesses can clearly hear the statements. However, even if there is physical separation, security measures are necessary to ensure that the parties are recognized as sharing the same legal session. Scholarly evaluations on this issue reveal different views. While some scholars argue that online video marriage can be compatible with Islamic law when the necessary legal security mechanisms are in place, others argue that risks such as lack of authentication, the inability of witnesses to fully follow the process, and the inability to prevent misleading statements may render such contracts legally invalid. In this context, a comparative study of the different approaches of the schools of fiqh will contribute to a more in-depth and comprehensive examination of the issue within the academic framework.
2.3.1. The View That Online Video Marriage is Not Permissible And İts Main Evidences
The Saudi Arabian Permanent Commission for Fatwa and Scientific Research states that it is Shari’ah objectionable to perform marriage contracts over the telephone. With the advancement of technology, voice impersonation methods have become widespread, and the ability to impersonate individuals’ identities increases the risks of forgery and deception in marriage contracts conducted over the phone. Since Islamic law is based on the mechanism of absolute reliability and witnessing, especially in marriage contracts, the process of offer and acceptance must be uninterrupted and the identities of the parties must be verifiable. Emphasizing that these conditions cannot be fully met in contracts concluded over the telephone, it is stated that marriage contracts should be concluded through a reliable method. The Commission therefore recommends that marriage contracts should be concluded face-to-face or by means of secure communication and does not recognize the validity of contracts concluded by telephone.[39] In line with the decision taken by the International Islamic Fiqh Academy (Majma’u’l-Fiqhi’l-Islamî) in Jeddah, it is stated that the online marriage contract is not considered valid in terms of Islamic law.[40]
Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Tayyār holds that it is not permissible to perform the marriage contract through the telephone, the internet and other modern means of communication. This view is based on factors such as identity forgery, the possibility of deception and security vulnerabilities.[41]
Çeker, one of the contemporary Islamic jurists, argues that the marriage contract is the contract that requires the most rigorous application of the formal requirements from a jurisprudential point of view, on the grounds that the marriage contract carries more risk than other legal contracts. According to him, the only contract in Islamic law in which a formal requirement is absolutely necessary is marriage; in other contracts, the formal requirement may change depending on the possibility of risk, whereas marriage is subject to the requirement of witnesses or announcement in all circumstances. In this framework, Çeker states that online video marriage contracts pose various risks in terms of identity verification processes, witnesses actually following the process and preventing misleading statements, and that they cannot be accepted as valid in terms of Islamic law.[42]
Proposed Evidence on the Subject
- Although the marriage contract performed online seems to fulfill the basic elements and conditions of the contract, it is not only an individual transaction based on the mutual consent of the parties, but also a multifaceted contract that includes a wide legal and social context with its familial and social dimensions. In this context, evaluating the marriage contract as a transaction that can be performed on the internet by comparing it with other legal transactions is not a correct approach in terms of the nature of the contract and its social effects.[43]
- The lack of complete security in electronic contracts, the inability to verify the identity of the parties, and the inability to determine their declarations of will in a complete manner pose significant risks for the validity of the marriage contract. While the right of termination in financial contracts can compensate for the lack of will of the parties or the factors that may negatively affect the contract, it is not deemed appropriate from a legal and jurisprudential point of view to compare a contract whose subject is property to a contract whose subject is human beings. In this framework, since the marriage contract has multifaceted consequences in terms of its effects on the families of the parties and the society beyond being an individual transaction, it is not considered a correct approach to be realized online by comparing it with financial contracts. In addition, the existence of conditions such as the presence of witnesses and the announcement of the marriage in Islamic law are considered as elements that strengthen the social dimension of the marriage contract and distinguish its nature from other contracts. Therefore, the views on the validity of the marriage contract performed over the internet are controversial in terms of the religious and legal purposes of marriage and its consequences, and it is argued that the contracts made by this method should not be accepted as valid in terms of Islamic law.[44]
- The validity of the marriage contract depends on the physical presence of the witnesses at the contractual assembly and their direct hearing of the declarations of offer and acceptance. According to the traditional jurisprudential perspective, this condition is not fully met in contracts concluded via telephone and other electronic means of communication, and the validity of the contract becomes questionable due to the fact that the union of the assembly does not actually take place and the witnesses cannot testify directly. In this context, when evaluated within the framework of the classical fiqh doctrine, the marriage contract performed through modern means of communication should not be considered legally valid on the grounds that it does not meet the necessary witnessing conditions.[45]
- The marriage contract is an important legal transaction that has the characteristics of worship and should be secured in accordance with the precautionary principle. Online marriages carry jurisprudential risks due to the lack of physical unity of the assembly, the lack of a witnessing mechanism, and uncertainties in identity verification processes, and are therefore considered contrary to the precautionary principle.[46]
- The marriage contract performed over the Internet does not fully meet the basic purposes of Islamic law, such as ensuring the continuity of marriage, protecting the family structure and creating legal security. Because marriage is not only a legal transaction, but also a special contract that has long-term consequences with its social and religious dimensions, and the bond between the parties must be established in a healthy way. Accordingly, it is important for the stability of the institution of marriage to preserve the traditional contractual methods, taking into account the jurisprudential and social aspects of marriage.[47]
2.3.2. The Permissibility of Online Video Marriage and its Main Evidence
Ibn Bâz (d. 1999), stated that online video marriage can be valid if deceptive attempts are prevented and the security of the contract is ensured.[48] ʿAbdullāh b. ʿAbdillāh al-Jibrīn defends the validity of the online marriage contract from a jurisprudential point of view and argues that the principle of unity of the assembly can be met juridically. According to him, even if the parties are physically located in different places, the validity of the contract can be ensured if they communicate simultaneously, the processes of offer and acceptance are uninterrupted, and the witnesses can clearly hear the statements.[49] This view is also defended by modern scholars such as ‘Umar al-Ashqar, Muhammad ‘Aqla, Muhammad al-Najjīmī and Wahba al-Zuhaylī. According to these scholars, the validity of the marriage can be ensured if the parties can communicate simultaneously, if the offer and acceptance take place without interruption, and if the witnesses can follow the process directly.[50] In his master’s thesis titled “al-Mesā’il al-Fiqhiyyat al-Mustajaddatu fi’n-Nikâāh ma’a Bayâni mā Ahazah bihi al-Qânūûni al-Kuwaiti”, Badr Nâṣer Musharri’ Sebiî evaluates the approach that accepts the validity of oral contracts performed through modern means of communication as a preferable view in terms of fiqh. The determinants of this view are the simultaneity of the verbal offer and acceptance, the ability of witnesses to directly observe the contract, and the clarity of the parties’ expressions of will. According to al-Sabī, the development of modern communication technologies increases the reliability of the contract by preventing the possibility of fraud and deception.[51]
The opinion of Yılmaz, who wrote an article on the subject, is as follows: In the case of a marriage contract performed by simultaneous conversation on the Internet, the moment of the contract and the moment of its establishment is the moment of the conversation in which the declaration of will is made. Accordingly, if the necessary legal measures and precautions are taken and the marriage is performed in accordance with the basic elements and conditions of the marriage and the formal conditions determined by the state (legal condition), there is no obstacle in terms of Islamic law in performing the marriage contract simultaneously on the internet.[52]
Proposed Evidence on the Subject
- Ibn Umar narrates that Hazrat Umar (r.a.) sent an army and appointed a man named Sariyah as its commander. According to the narration, when Hazrat Umar was delivering a sermon in Madinah, he suddenly shouted in a loud voice, “O Saraiyah, al-Jabal! Ya Sariyah, al-Jabal!” three times. Later, when the army under the command of al-Sariyah returned to Madinah, when Hazrat Umar asked about the course of the battle, the commander stated that they heard a voice while fighting the enemy, and that this voice told them to head towards the mountain, and that they defeated the enemy by leaning against the mountain. Based on this incident, Ibn Bedrān stated that although the Prophet ‘Umar was in Medina, al-Sāriya heard his voice directing the army in Nahāwand and acted in accordance with this instruction. From an academic point of view, this narration is presented as evidence for the view that communication can take place through different means, that verbal guidance can be effective despite spatial barriers, and that it is juristically possible for a leader to give guidance even from a distance.[53]
-In classical Islamic jurisprudence, there are some opinions supporting the simultaneous declaration of will by voice and video by parties who are in different places and at different distances. In this context, the Shafi’i jurist al-Nawawī (d. 676/1277) states that the contract of sale is concluded when one of the parties makes an offer out loud and the other party accepts when he hears it, regardless of whether the parties can see each other or not.[54] When this view of al-Nawawī is evaluated in the light of today’s technological developments, it is concluded that modern means of communication can enable a contractual process in terms of fiqh by analogy with audio and video declarations of will made on the internet. This is because audio and video declarations of will made via telephone and the internet can bring the parties, who are physically in different places, into the contractual process simultaneously, and can establish the unity of the assembly. This is supported by the fact that even if the parties to the contract are not physically present in the same environment, they can express their declarations of will clearly and unambiguously in the same period of time.[55]
- In the marriage contract, which is performed via audio-video on the internet and mobile phones, the basic elements and conditions of the contract are met as in other contracts, and the offer and acceptance take place in the same assembly. In this process, it is possible for the guardian and witnesses to be present, and the parties and witnesses can hear the verbal declarations of will simultaneously. Therefore, thanks to technological means, the physical distance between the parties is eliminated and the marriage contract can be performed in a way that meets the criteria of validity in terms of fiqh.[56]
- Unlike traditional written contract methods, the Internet provides a dynamic communication environment that allows the parties to interact simultaneously. In this context, in contracts concluded through the internet, it becomes possible for the parties to express their will not only through written statements, but also through audio and video, thus functioning as a more effective means of communication in terms of fulfilling the elements of the contract. This situation enables the realization of the basic elements that establish the legal bond between the parties without the limitations of physical space and makes it possible to communicate the verbal declaration of will in a healthier way.[57]
Conclusıon
In the digital age, the realization of the marriage through video online means, which is different from the traditional form of marriage, has brought new discussions on how to apply these basic conditions. Issues such as providing the witness mechanism in the virtual environment, declaring the offer and acceptance through digital means, obtaining the permission of the guardian through proxy, and announcing the marriage through tools such as social media are handled with different interpretations among jurists. We can list our findings on the subject as follows:
- The Nikāḥ contract has a different structure from other contracts in terms of its legal consequences and has a special status in Islamic law due to its familial and social effects. In this context, it is imperative to fulfill the elements specified for the validity of the nikāḥ, and its execution through video communication tools has been considered as a controversial issue. In jurisprudential debates, the aspects of marriage that distinguish it from classical contracts are emphasized, especially the unity of the assembly, the complete fulfillment of the mechanism of witnessing, and the long-term effects of the marriage bond. Therefore, there are differences of opinion regarding the use of modern communication technologies, and the issue of whether this method fully fulfills the Sharī’ah requirements of the nikāh contract is open to debate.
- In our age of accelerating digitalization, identity verification systems are at the center of security measures. In particular, biometric verification systems offer important solutions in the field of digital security in order to prevent identity fraud and to put legal processes on a more solid ground. In the context of online video marriages, these technologies stand out for their ability to prevent fake marriage attempts by securely verifying the identities of the parties, strengthening the mechanism of witnessing, and increasing the legal bindingness of the contract. However, important limitations should be taken into account, such as the immutability of biometric data, the risk of cyber-attacks when stored in centralized databases, and the lack of accessibility for everyone due to physical limitations.
-While traditional practices are based on the physical presence of the parties, with the development of digital technologies, some jurisprudential authorities consider online video marriage as a method that can adapt to the needs of modern society. On the other hand, some jurisprudential opinions consider online video marriages as a matter that should be evaluated with caution in terms of privacy protection and security risks. In marriage contracts conducted over the phone or the internet, factors such as lack of authentication, the possibility of fraudulent statements, connection interruptions and data security may affect the validity of the contract. If such risks cannot be prevented, it may be difficult for the witnessing mechanism to function properly and the validity of the marriage contract may become questionable.
- Ultimately, the validity of the online video marriage contract in terms of Islamic law is directly related to the principle of unity of the assembly, the effective use of secure authentication mechanisms, and the assurance of the witness system. Today’s technological developments make it possible for the parties to interact in the digital environment at the same time, and in this context, it is stated that there is no obstacle in principle from a Sharia perspective. However, in order for this contract to be considered authentic, risks such as identity forgery, privacy violations and data security must be eliminated. For this reason, it is essential to support online video marriage applications with security protocols that will protect their legal bindingness and to prevent deceptive attempts by strengthening the witnessing mechanism. Although a marriage contract that does not contradict the principles of Islamic law is possible if the technological infrastructure is provided in a reliable manner, there is a recent opinion that a cautious and careful approach should be adopted in order to guarantee the legitimacy of the process.
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[3] al-Bukhārī, Nikāḥ, 3; Muslim, Nikāḥ, 1; Sulaymān b. Ashʿath al-Azdī al-Sijistānī Abū Dāwūd, al-Sunan, ed. Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ – Muḥammad Kāmil Karaballī (Beirut: Dār al-Risālah al-ʿĀlamiyyah, 2009), Nikāḥ, 1; Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Aḥmad b. Shuʿayb al-Nasāʾī, Kitāb al-Sunan al-Kubrā, ed. Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ (Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Risālah, 2001), Nikāḥ, 3.
[4] Zayn al-Dīn al-Munajjī b. ʿUthmān al-Tanūkhī, al-Mumtiʿ fī Sharḥ al-Muqniʿ, ed. ʿAbd al-Malik b. ʿAbd Allāh Duḥaysh (Makkah: Maktabat al-Asadī, 2003), 3/547; Muḥammad b. Ṣāliḥ al-ʿUthaymīn, al-Sharḥ al-Mumtiʿ ʿalā Zād al-Mustaqniʿ (n.p.: Dār Ibn al-Jawzī, 1428), 12/36; Hamit Sevgili, “Aile Hukuku 1”, İslâm Hukuku 2 -Ahvâl-i Şahsiyye (Şahıs-Aile-Miras), ed. Hamit Sevgili (İstanbul: Beyan Yayınları, 2024), 103-106.
[5] Abū Bakr b. Masʿūd al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1986), 2/229; ʿAlī b. Abī Bakr b. ʿAbd al-Jalīl al-Farghānī Abū al-Ḥasan Burhān al-Dīn al-Marghīnānī, al-Hidāyah fī Sharḥ Bidāyat al-Mubtadī, ed. Ṭilāl Yūsuf (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, n.d.); Abū al-Faḍl Majd al-Dīn ʿAbd Allāh b. Maḥmūd b. Mawdūd al-Mawṣilī, al-Ikhtiyār li-Taʿlīl al-Mukhtār, ed. Maḥmūd Abū Daqīqah (Cairo: Maṭbaʿat al-Ḥalabī, 1937), 3/82; Abū Muḥammad Fakhr al-Dīn ʿUthmān b. ʿAlī al-Bārīʾī al-Zaylaʿī, Tabyīn al-Ḥaqāʾiq Sharḥ Kanz al-Daqāʾiq (Cairo: al-Maṭbaʿah al-Kubrā al-Amīriyyah, 1313), 2/95; Raḍī al-Dīn Abū Bakr b. ʿAlī b. Muḥammad al-Ḥaddād, al-Jawharah al-Nayyirah (n.p.: al-Maṭbaʿah al-Khayriyyah, 1904), 2/2.
[6] Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Desūqī, Ḥāshiyat al-Desūqī ʿalā al-Sharḥ al-Kabīr (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), 2/220; Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Ghanīm b. Sālim al-Azharī al-Nafrāwī, al-Fawākih al-Dawwānī ʿalā Risālat Ibn Abī Zayd al-Qayrawānī (n.p.: Dār al-Fikr, 1995), 2/3–4; ʿAbd al-Bāqī b. Yūsuf al-Zurqānī, Sharḥ al-Zurqānī ʿalā Mukhtaṣar Khalīl, ed. ʿAbd al-Salām Muḥammad Amīn (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2002), 3/299.
[7] Abū Yaḥyā Zayn al-Dīn Zakariyyā b. Muḥammad al-Sunaynkī al-Anṣārī, Fatḥ al-Wahhāb bi-Sharḥ Minhaj al-Ṭullāb (n.p.: Dār al-Fikr, 1994), 2/41; Abū al-ʿAbbās Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Muḥammad al-Saʿdī Ibn Ḥajar al-Haytamī, Tuḥfat al-Muḥtāj bi-Sharḥ al-Minhāj (with marginal notes by Shirwānī and ʿAbbādī) (Miṣr: al-Maktabat al-Tijāriyyah al-Kubrā, 1983), 7/217; Abū ʿAbd Allāh Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Ramlī, Nihāyat al-Muḥtāj ilā Sharḥ al-Minhāj (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1984), 6/209; Sulaymān b. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar al-Miṣrī al-Bujayrimī, Ḥāshiyat al-Bujayrimī ʿalā al-Khaṭīb / Tuḥfat al-Ḥabīb ʿalā Sharḥ al-Khaṭīb (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1995), 3/386–387; Muḥammad al-Zuhrī Ghamrāwī, al-Sirāj al-Wahhāj ʿalā Matn al-Minhāj (Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, n.d.), 362.
[8] ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. ʿAdnān ʿĪdān – Anas b. ʿĀdil al-Yatāmī, al-Dalāʾil wa al-Ishārāt ʿalā Aḥsar al-Mukhtaṣarāt li-Muḥammad b. Badr al-Dīn al-Balbānī (Kuwait: Dār al-Rakāʾiz, 2018), 3/16–17; Aḥmad b. ʿAbd Allāh Ibn Aḥmad al-Baʿlī, al-Rawḍ al-Nadī Sharḥ Kāfī al-Mubtadī fī Fiqh Imām al-Sunnah Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal al-Shaybānī, ed. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Ḥasan Maḥmūd (Riyāḍ: Muʾassasat al-Saʿīdiyyah, n.d.), 352; al-ʿUthaymīn, al-Sharḥ al-Mumtiʿ ʿalā Zād al-Mustaqniʿ, 12/36; Manṣūr b. Yūnus b. Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Buhūtī, Kashshāf al-Qināʿ ʿan Matn al-Iqnāʿ (n.p.: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, n.d.), 5/37.
[9] For detailed information and differences of opinion regarding the elements of the marriage contract in Shiite jurisprudence, see. Ahmet Ekinci, “Şiî Mezheplerde Nikâh Akdi ve Boşanma”, Batman Akademi Dergisi 5/2 (14 Aralık 2021), 309-329.
[10] Ziyāʾ al-Dīn Abū al-Mawaddah Khalīl b. Isḥāq b. Mūsā al-Jundī, al-Tawḍīḥ fī Sharḥ Mukhtaṣar Ibn Ḥājib, ed. Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Karīm Najīb (n.p.: Markaz al-Najībiyyah, 2008), 3/580; Abū al-Khaṭṭāb Maḥfūẓ b. Aḥmad al-Kalwadhānī, al-Hidāyah, ed. ʿAbd al-Laṭīf Hamīm – Māhir Yāsīn al-Fahl (Muʾassasat Ghirās, 2004), 395; al-Desūqī, Ḥāshiyat al-Desūqī, 2/275; al-Bujayrimī, Tuḥfat al-Ḥabīb, 3/261.
[11] al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, 2/229; al-Marghīnānī, al-Hidāyah; al-Mawṣilī, al-Ikhtiyār li-Taʿlīl al-Mukhtār, 3/82; al-Zaylaʿī, Tabyīn al-Ḥaqāʾiq, 2/95; al-Ḥaddād, al-Jawharah al-Nayyirah, 2/2.
[12] ʿAbd al-Ghanī b. Ṭālib b. Ḥammādah al-Ghunaymī al-Dimashqī al-Maydānī, al-Lubāb fī Sharḥ al-Kitāb (Beirut: al-Maktabat al-ʿIlmiyyah, n.d.), 3/3.
[13] Ibn Ḥajar al-Haytamī, Tuḥfat al-Muḥtāj, 7/217; Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Khaṭīb al-Qāhirī al-Shirbīnī, al-Iqnāʿ fī Ḥall Alfāẓ Abī Shujāʿ, ed. Maktab al-Buḥūth wa al-Dirāsāt (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), 2/408; al-Nafrāwī, al-Fawākih al-Dawwānī, 2/4.
[14] In Turkish law, marriage is a strictly personal transaction and it is essential that the parties declare their will to marry in person. This necessitates that the marriage contract must be based on an individual and direct declaration of will, and it is not legally possible for third parties to perform the marriage contract with the authority of representation. For this reason, marriage by proxy is generally not accepted, and marriage is only realized when the parties declare their will personally and directly in the presence of the marriage officer. Ahmet Yaman, İslam Aile Hukuku (İstanbul: Marifet Yayınları, 1999), 39; Halil İbrahim Acar, Türk Medeni Kanununda Aile ve Miras (Bursa: Emin Yayınları, 2022), 88.
[15] Abū Zakariyyā Yaḥyā b. Sharaf al-Nawawī, al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab (with the supplement of al-Subkī and al-Muṭīʿī) (Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), 14/96–97; Abū al-ʿAbbās Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Luʾluʾ al-Miṣrī Ibn al-Naqīb, ʿUmdat al-Sālik wa ʿUddat al-Nāsik, ed. Abū al-ʿAbbās Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Luʾluʾ b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Rūmī al-Miṣrī Ibrāhīm (Qatar: Shuʾūn al-Dīniyyah, 1982), 166; Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad Minhājī, Jawāhir al-ʿUqūd wa Muʿīn al-Quḍāt wa al-Muwaqqiʿīn wa al-Shuhūd, ed. Musʿad ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Muḥammad Saʿdanī (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1996), 1/157.
[16] al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, 2/231–232.
[17] al-Marghīnānī, al-Hidāyah, 1/185; al-Zaylaʿī, Tabyīn al-Ḥaqāʾiq, 2/96; Abū Ḥafṣ Sirāj al-Dīn ʿUmar b. ʿAlī al-Anṣārī al-Miṣrī Ibn al-Mullaqqin, al-Tadhkirah, ed. Muḥammad Ḥasan Muḥammad Ḥasan Ismāʿīl (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2006), 96; Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Khaṭīb al-Shirbīnī, Mughni al-Muḥtāj ilā Maʿrifat Maʿānī Alfāẓ al-Minhāj (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1994), 4/226; Hayreddin Karaman, Mukayeseli İslam Hukuku-I, ed. Namık Ayhan (İstanbul: Nesil Yayınları, 1991), 267.
[18] al-Desūqī, Ḥāshiyat al-Desūqī, 2/220; al-Nafrāwī, al-Fawākih al-Dawwānī, 2/11–12; Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḥarashī, Sharḥ Mukhtaṣar Khalīl (Beirut: Dār Fikr li’l-Ṭibāʿah, n.d.), 3/253; Abū Muḥammad Badr al-Dīn Maḥmūd b. Aḥmad b. Mūsā al-ʿAynī, al-Bināyah Sharḥ al-Hidāyah (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2000), 5/131; Nurettin Yıldırım, İslam Hukukunda Mehir ve Ev Eşyasıyla İlgili Anlaşmazlıklar ve Çözümleri, ed. Mehmet Macit Sevgili (Ankara: Sonçağ Akademi Yayınları, 2019), 14-17.
[19] Abū Bakr Aḥmad b. ʿAlī al-Rāzī al-Jaṣṣāṣ, Sharḥ Mukhtaṣar al-Ṭaḥāwī (Beirut: Dār al-Bashāʾir al-Islāmiyyah, 2010), 4/398; al-Zaylaʿī, Tabyīn al-Ḥaqāʾiq, 2/136; Sirāj al-Dīn ʿUmar b. Ibrāhīm b. Muḥammad al-Miṣrī, al-Nahr al-Fāʾiq Sharḥ Kanz al-Daqāʾiq, ed. Aḥmad ʿAzw al-ʿInāyah (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2002), 2/228.
[20] Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Muḥammad al-Baṣrī al-Māwardī, al-Ḥāwī al-Kabīr, ed. ʿAlī Muḥammad Muʿawwaḍ - ʿĀdil Aḥmad ʿAbd al-Mawjūd (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1999), 9/397; Abū Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Salām b. Saʿīd b. Ḥabīb al-Tanūkhī Sahnūn, al-Mudawwanah (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1994), 2/152; al-Zaylaʿī, Tabyīn al-Ḥaqāʾiq, 2/136.
[21] Kamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wāḥid al-Siwāsī al-Iskandarī Ibn al-Humām, Fatḥ al-Qadīr (n.p.: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), 3/324; Meḥmed b. Farāmurz b. ʿAlī Mollā Ḥusraw, Durar al-Ḥukkām fī Sharḥ Gurar al-Aḥkām (n.p.: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Kutub al-ʿArabiyyah, n.d.), 1/341; Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Wahhāb b. ʿAlī al-Taghlibī al-Baghdādī, al-Maʿūnah ʿalā Madhhab ʿUlamāʾ al-Madīnah, ed. Ḥumaysh ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq (Makkah: al-Maktabah al-Tijārīyah, n.d.), 752.
[22] ’ al-ʿAynī, al-Bināyah, 5/130.
[23] Yaman, İslam Aile Hukuku, 46.
[24] Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar b. ʿAlī Ibn al-Mulaqqin, al-Tawḍīḥ li-Sharḥ al-Jāmiʿ al-Ṣaḥīḥ. (Damascus: Dār al-Nawādir, 2008), 24/233.
[25] Ibn Mājah, al-Sunan, Nikāḥ, 20; Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā al-Tirmidhī, al-Sunan (Beirut: Sharikat Maktabat wa Maṭbaʿat Muṣṭafā al-Bābī, 1975), Nikāḥ, 6; Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥusayn b. Muḥammad al-Baghawī, Sharḥ al-Sunnah, ed. Shuʿayb Arnāʾūṭ – Muḥammad Zuhayr al-Shāwish (Beirut: al-Maktabah al-Islāmiyyah, 1983), 9/47; Abū Bakr Aḥmad b. al-Ḥusayn al-Bayhaqī, al-Sunan al-Kubrā, ed. Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2003), 7/473.
[26] al-Māwardī, al-Ḥāwī al-Kabīr, 9/57–58; Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Qurṭubī Ibn Rushd, Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid (Cairo: Dār al-Ḥadīth, 2004), 3/44; Muwaffaq al-Dīn ʿAbd Allāh b. Aḥmad al-Maqdisī Ibn Qudāmah, al-Mughnī (n.p.: Maktabat al-Qāhirah, 1968), 7/8–10; al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, 2/252–253; al-Qāḍī Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, al-Talqīn fī al-Fiqh al-Mālikī, ed. Abū Uways Muḥammad (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2004), 1/114; al-Baghdādī, al-Maʿūnah, 745; Muḥammad b. ʿAlī b. Ādam b. Mūsā al-Ityūbī al-Wallawī, Zahīrat al-ʿUqbā fī Sharḥ al-Mujtabā (n.p.: Dār Āl Burūm, 2003), 27/192.
[27] Yaʿqūb b. Ibrāhīm b. Ḥabīb b. Saʿd al-Kūfī Abū Yūsuf, Ikhtilāf Abī Ḥanīfah wa Ibn Abī Laylā, ed. Abū al-Wafāʾ al-Afghānī (India: Lajnat Iḥyāʾ al-Maʿārif al-Nuʿmāniyyah, n.d.); Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan b. Farqad al-Shaybānī, al-Aṣl, ed. Mehmet Boynukalın (Beirut: Dār Ibn Ḥazm, 2012), 10/198–199; al-Marghīnānī, al-Hidāyah, 1/191; al-Zaylaʿī, Tabyīn al-Ḥaqāʾiq, 2/117; Muḥammad b. Muḥammad ʿUlaysh, Minhah al-Jalīl Sharḥ Mukhtaṣar Khalīl (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1989), 3/266; Muṣṭafā Ḥinn, al-Fiqh al-Manhajī ʿalā Madhhab al-Imām al-Shāfiʿī (Dimashq: Dār al-Qalam, 1992), 4/60–64.
[28] Yaman, İslam Aile Hukuku, 38-39; Orhan Çeker (ed.), Osmanlı Hukuk-ı Aile Kararnamesi (Konya: Mehir vakfı yayınları, 2016), 24.
[29] According to Shiite jurisprudence, there are seven impediments to marriage: blood relationship, foster relationship, existing marriage, the limit of four wives, liân, difference in religion, and ihram. In particular, a marriage contract concluded during ihram is considered invalid. Ahmet Ekinci, “Şiî Mezhepler Arasında İhtilaflı Bir Mesele: Müt‘a Nikâhı”, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 20 (25 Aralık 2021), 119.
[30] al-Anṣārī, Fatḥ al-Wahhāb bi-Sharḥ Minhaj al-Ṭullāb, 2/50–54; Taqī al-Dīn Abū Bakr b. Muḥammad al-Ḥusaynī al-Ḥiṣnī, Kifāyat al-Akhyār fī Ḥall Ghāyat al-Ikhtiṣār, ed. ʿAlī ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Baltajī – Muḥammad Wahbī Sulaymān (Dimashq: Dār al-Khayr, 1994), 362–365; al-Shirbīnī, al-Iqnāʿ, 2/416–419; al-Bujayrimī, Tuḥfat al-Ḥabīb, 3/415–418; al-Nafrāwī, al-Fawākih al-Dawwānī, 2/14–18.
[31] Mevsılî, el-İhtiyâr li-taʿlîli’l-Muhtâr, 3/85-87; Zeylaî, Tebyînü’l-hakâik, 2/101; Kelvezânî, el-Hidâye, 390; Sevgili, “Aile Hukuku 1”, 117-121.
[32] For detailed information see. Uğur Karagöz, Türkiye’de Kamu Yönetiminin Dijital Dönüşümü: Ulusal Veri Santrali Model Önerisi (Ankara: Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2020); Ali Hasan Hamut, “Türkiye’de Dijitalleşme Olgusuna İlişkin Bibliyografya ve Bir Değerlendirme”, TRT Akademi 6/12 (31 Mayıs 2021), 600-627; Handan Boyalı, “Türkiye’de Vatandaş Odaklı İdare: E- Devlet Ötesi Dijitalleşen Kamu”, Bucak İşletme Fakültesi Dergisi 6/2 (28 Ekim 2023), 172-190.
[33] Nursel Yalçın - Filiz Gürbüz, “Biyometrik Güvenlik Sistemlerinin İncelenmesi”, Duzce University Journal of Science and Technology 3/2 (11 Şubat 2015), 399-401, 411-412.
[34] Bilal Eren, Biyometrik Teknolojilerin Etkili Tasarlanması ve Uygulanmasında Yeni Bir Öneri: Multimodel Teknoloji (İstanbul: Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2009), 32.
[35] al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, 2/232; al-Buhūtī, Kashshāf al-Qināʿ ʿan Matn al-Iqnāʿ, 5/41.
[36] al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, 2/231–232.
[37] Abū Zakariyyā Yaḥyā b. Sharaf al-Nawawī, Rawḍat al-Ṭālibīn wa ʿUmdat al-Muttaqīn, ed. Zuhayr al-Shāwish (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1991), 3/342; Committee of Scholars, al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah al-Kuwaytiyyah (Kuwait: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa al-Shuʾūn al-Islāmiyyah, 1427 AH), 30/216; İbrahim Yılmaz, “İslâm Aile Hukukuna Göre İnternet Ortamında Nikâh Akdinin (Evlenme Sözleşmesinin) Kuruluşu,” İslam Hukuku Araştırmaları Dergisi 23 (2014), 94-95.
[38] al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, 2/232; ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿAlī al-Dimashqī al-Ḥaṣkafī, al-Durr al-Mukhtār Sharḥ Tanwīr al-Abṣār wa Jāmiʿ al-Biḥār, ed. ʿAbd al-Munʿim Khalīl Ibrāhīm (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 2002), 178.
[39] Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Razzāq Dawīsh (ed.), Fatāwā al-Lajnah al-Dāʾimah li’l-Buḥūth al-ʿIlmiyyah wa’l-Iftāʾ (Riyāḍ: Risālat Idārat al-Buḥūth al-ʿIlmiyyah wa’l-Iftāʾ, n.d.), 18/91.
[40] Badr Nāṣir Musharriʾ al-Sabīʿī, al-Masāʾil al-Fiqhiyyah al-Mustajaddah fī al-Nikāḥ maʿa Bayān mā Akhadh bihi al-Qānūn al-Kuwaytī, Majallat al-Waʿy al-Islāmī (Kuwait: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa al-Shuʾūn al-Islāmiyyah, 2014), 1/122–123.
[41] ʿAbd Allāh b. Muḥammad Ṭayyār, al-Fiqh al-Muyassar (Riyāḍ: Madār al-Waṭan, 2011), 11/24.
[42] Orhan Çeker, Fıkıh Dersleri 1 (Konya: Ensar Yayıncılık, 2011), 43; Orhan Çeker, İslam Hukukunda Akidler (İstanbul: A.H.İ. Yayıncılık, 2006), 56-57; Orhan Çeker, “A Discussion on Digital Marriage Contracts from the Perspective of Islamic Law”.
[43] Yılmaz, “İslâm Aile Hukukuna Göre İnternet Ortamında Nikâh Akdinin (Evlenme Sözleşmesinin) Kuruluşu”, 92.
[44] Üzeyir Öztürk, Elektronik Ortamda Yapılan Akitlerin İslam Hukuku Açısından Değerlendirilmesi (Kayseri: Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2009), 152.
[45] Yılmaz, “İslâm Aile Hukukuna Göre İnternet Ortamında Nikâh Akdinin (Evlenme Sözleşmesinin) Kuruluşu”, 93.
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